R3 1.6 March 29, 2023 Science of Effective Learning; Supporting Nontraditional Distance Ed Students

A comprehensive new review of spacing, retrieval practice, and metacognition, and a qualitative study of what it was like to be a mother with children studying online at the height of the pandemic.

This issue of R3 kicks off with an in-depth recent review of spacing, retrieval practice, and metacognition from a research team known for cutting-edge work on those phenomena.

Second, there is an article by Anne Fensie, Teri St. Pierre, Jennifer Jain, and Asli Sezen‑Barrie on the experiences of working mothers in distance education courses. Caregiving while learning is a balancing act that a large proportion of our students, particularly in online programs, carry off on a daily basis, and is a factor that online programs need to take into account when designing courses and policies. It’s an issue that I wrote about a while back in my book Minds Online: Teaching Effectively with Technology, albeit from a slightly different angle emphasizing the “third shift” idea, namely that students may be doing their schoolwork after paid work and caring for a family. I’ve also chosen this article as an opportunity to highlight Fensie’s work, which I’m a fan of.

1. The science of effective learning with spacing and retrieval practice

Citation:

Carpenter, S.K., Pan, S.C. & Butler, A.C. (2022). The science of effective learning with spacing and retrieval practice. Nature Reviews Psychology, 1, 496–511.

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.1038/s44159-022-00089-1

Paywall or Open: 

Paywall

Summary:

This is a review-style article that synthesizes research to date in three key areas pertaining to learning: spacing, retrieval practice, and metacognition. As the authors point out, learning is becoming both more important in a rapidly developing world, and also more dependent on learners’ own choices, as online and nontraditional modalities continue to expand. It is increasingly up to learners to choose study approaches and to self-monitor their progress. Future directions for research are discussed, again with an emphasis on preparing learners to succeed in less-structured, less instructor-directed environments.

Research Questions (Excerpted from the Introduction):

“In this Review, we discuss key research findings from the psychology of learning. We begin with an overview of how learning is typically measured. We then discuss spacing and retrieval practice, two strategies that produce effective learning. We focus on these strategies because of the long-standing research showcasing their general effectiveness and straightforward applicability in numerous learning domains. Next, we discuss key findings in the research on metacognition — how learners monitor and make decisions about their own learning — focusing on ways in which metacognition can break down and how to improve it.”

Key Findings: 

Learning can be defined and measured both in terms of memory for facts, and also in terms of application or thinking. The authors offer an example of remembering the Pythagorean theorem, versus being able to use it to solve a formal mathematics problem, versus being able to use it in a real-world situation. The memory component is necessary for all three of these, yet the latter two examples also involve transfer and thinking skills.

Far and away the most effective strategies for developing memory are spacing and retrieval practice. Spacing in particular, they argue, is one of the “most robust” phenomena in all of the psychology of learning, having been demonstrated in hundreds of published studies across a diverse range of subjects, settings, and conditions. Notably, they point out that there is no single ideal spacing interval, although in general, shorter intervals are better for information that hasn’t been well learned yet.

Similarly, retrieval practice has a powerful basis in research, with studies showing its impact on retention even under different circumstances such as feedback/no feedback or whether students are allowed to review their performance. They do review some mixed findings as to whether retrieval practice enhances far transfer (i.e., where the new application of the knowledge is very different than the context in which it was originally learned). However, for near transfer, retrieval practice does have an overall positive effect.

These two strategies can also be combined in an approach called “successive relearning,” in which learners attempt to retrieve information over spaced intervals during which they might have experienced some forgetting. The authors review a long-standing line of research showing how powerful successive relearning can be.

Lastly, with respect to metacognition, findings mostly point toward the “suboptimal” strategies that learners choose when left to their own devices. Even when powerful strategies like self-quizzing are used, learners tend to do so as a way to find out what they still need to study, rather than to engage in study per se. To address  these counterproductive patterns, authors endorse “comprehensive interventions that involve direct instruction about effective learning strategies,” coupled with activities that persuade students and engage them in planning to use these in lieu of less-effective strategies.

Choice Quote from the Article:

“Much like a fitness routine designed to achieve a particular goal, such as weight loss or miles walked in a year, a successful learning routine requires knowing what to do and when to do it. We review key research findings on two of the most effective strategies for learning according to psychological research. Spacing is a way to structure or schedule learning activities over time (when to engage in learning), whereas retrieval practice is a learning activity that can be incorporated within a broader structured plan (how to learn effectively).”

Why it Matters:

The references section alone is a great resource for those wanting to either become acquainted with cognitively-oriented learning science research, or to take a deep dive into that work. The authors clearly have a strong sense of how this research fits into a rapidly changing educational landscape, and I could not agree more with their points about how today’s learners need to have different set of skills in order to succeed, compared to previous generations. For educators who find themselves needing to persuade others – fellow faculty, students, leadership – of the value of evidence-based learning design, this article could be an invaluable resource to draw on in crafting that argument.

Notably as well, the authors are themselves major contributors to the lines of research they’re reviewing. As a researcher looking to stay up to date in my field, I treasure reviews like this - ones that are conceptually sophisticated, comprehensive, and written from a truly expert perspective. The article also reinforces a point I think is important: the fact that while memory is not the sum total of learning, it is an important basis for it. At no time do the authors conflate memory with higher-order thinking and application, but they do offer a clear and thoughtful explanation of how memory is a necessary support for application, along with the importance of transfer in developing the ability to use knowledge.

The tables in the article showing key findings, broken down by learner age and type of materials, are a great way to illustrate the sheer diversity and power of the support for spacing and retrieval practice. In reading over these, I was especially impressed that spacing and retrieval practice have been studied in children as young as pre-school age, which further drives home just how foundational these two factors are in shaping memory.

Most Relevant For:

Instructional designers; academics across disciplines seeking to deepen knowledge of learning science; cognitive psychologists; online program faculty and leadership

Limitations, Caveats, and Nagging Questions:

The only caveat I’d offer about this article is that it is dense and somewhat technical. The authors do an admirable job of distilling and explaining the research, but because there is just so much of it, it could still be a daunting read for someone without any background in the topics or in behavioral science.

If you liked this like this article, you might also appreciate:

Agarwal, P. K., Nunes, L. D. & Blunt, J. R. Retrieval practice consistently benefits student learning: a systematic review of applied research in schools and classrooms. Educ. Psychol. Rev. 33, 1409–1453 (2021).

McDaniel, M. A., & Einstein, G. O. (2020). Training learning strategies to promote self- regulation and transfer: The knowledge, belief, commitment, and planning framework. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 15(16), 1363–1381.

Samani, J. & Pan, S. C. Interleaved practice enhances memory and problem- solving ability in undergraduate physics. npj Sci. Learn. 6, 32 (2021).

File under: 

Learning sciences; retrieval practice; metacognition; transfer; distributed practice; spacing; study skills

2. Engaged learning during distraction: A case study of successful working moms in distance education

Citation:

Fensie, A., St, T., Jennifer, P., Asli, J., & Barrie, S. (2023). Engaged learning during distraction: A case study of successful working moms in distance education. Journal of Computing in Higher Education. Springer US.

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.1007/s12528-023-09359-0

Paywall or Open: 

Open

Summary:

This is a qualitative study of the experiences of women with children in distance education programs during quarantine, geared to understanding features of online course designs and policies that are more supportive to non-traditional learners.  The guiding framework is student-centered design of learning experiences (e.g., ADDIE, LXD). The authors review the prevalence and some of the history of distance education, with a focus on how these programs serve adult learners, including mothers, and go on to offer qualitative analysis of two different sources of data: interviews conducted with the participants, and recorded online study sessions. Three faculty members were also interviewed about their perceptions of nontraditional distance education students. Results highlighted the multiple distractions and competing demands that student-parents handle, the role of distraction and task-switching in barriers to effective study, and the importance of instructor presence and flexible policies to nontraditional students. The authors advise actively taking steps to learn about the challenges faced by distance education students, coupled with design features that minimize cognitive load, and emphasizing connections to distance students.  

Research Questions (excerpted from the article):

“In this paper, the authors begin by briefly summarizing the literature on adult learners in distance education, including working mothers, and then outlining the conceptual framework guiding this study. The next section describes the case study methodology and the collective case study method used, including a description of the participants, data collection methods, and data analysis. In the third section of the paper, the authors present the cases and the results of the findings that speak to the need to understand the learner when designing instruction, specifically understanding the level of distraction that these adult working mothers faced in distance education and the effects of prior knowledge and self-pacing on student success.”

Sample:

Six academically high-achieving White women with school-age children, 3 of whom were undergraduate and 3 graduate students. Three faculty members identified and recruited them for the study, and also provided their own perspectives on nontraditional students and course design.

Method/Design:

Two data gathering methods were used, first, verbal interviews that were then reviewed and systematically coded for major themes. Second, sample online study sessions were recorded and then coded for what the student is doing and whether distractions occurred. Distractions could include participant-initiated off-topic activities (e.g., searching online for a dinner restaurant) or interruptions initiated by others, such as children. Interviews focused on why participants were pursuing their present degree and what their experiences had been with respect to distance education, with emphasis on what they did and did not like about the online courses they had been in.

Key Findings: 

Analyses of study sessions showed frequent intrusions and interruptions, both generated by participants themselves and others in the environment, mainly children. Participants frequently responded to children’s requests when interrupted. Study sessions frequently took place at night or in short segments reflecting other paid work and the needs of the family; students relied strongly on self-imposed time management and planning techniques to cope with competing demands. Appreciation for the flexibility of distance education was a frequent theme of interviews, although one also stated a preference for class interactions online and found them more supportive of open discussion.

The COVID-19 pandemic introduced some additional demands on these students, primarily connected to school closures. However, participants tended to minimize these impacts, and against the backdrop of the substantial stresses they were already under, the pandemic was not an overriding additional factor.

On reflecting on how they managed competing demands and interruptions, participants sometimes hewed to extremely high self-imposed standards, expressing dissatisfaction with both how they engaged in the course and responded to their children. On reflecting on their experiences as nontraditional learners in distance ed programs, a major theme was the responsiveness and social presence of instructors.

Themes from faculty perceptions included acknowledging that nontraditional students grappled with many competing demands on their time, along with a perception of grit and intrinsic motivation among these learners. Faculty were fairly unlikely to modify or tailor their instruction for the specific needs of nontraditional learners.  

Choice Quote from the Article:

“The strategies for success that these working mother students utilized could be beneficial for all adult learners in distance education. These include: maintaining an organized schedule and organized materials, planning ahead, developing routines, minimizing distractions, making connections between course content and their lives, thinking aloud, completing assignments early, thinking about course content throughout the week, connecting with peers, and double-checking their work. These strategies are consistent with findings from other researchers on what adult learners do to be successful in distance education (e.g., Thomas et al., 2021; Webber & Dis- more, 2020).

The experiences of these participants should also be informative for faculty andadministrators of distance education programs as they can see just how challenged these students were and the impact their course design and communication can have (Mahaffey et al., 2015). Faculty should be aware that the factors most salient to these learners were cognitive load (Sweller et al., 2019), scaffolding (Hannafin et al., 1997, 1999), and increasing social presence (Sung & Mayer, 2012). Learn- ing Management System (LMS) designers should consider avoiding redundancy in their platforms so that faculty only enter information one time while displaying that same information to students in multiple locations and formats conducive to learning and self-regulation.”

Why it Matters:

The literature review and background alone offers important contexts for distance education programs, including some nuances on why students enter or re-enter higher education, and how student expectations articulate with cultural expectations around “good” motherhood. I also appreciated how, towards the end, the article brings in important cognitive concepts that can guide course design. Among these are the importance of minimizing task-switching and extraneous cognitive load while encouraging time-efficient strategies such as retrieval practice. Overall, the article advocates for many of the exact features that should be a part of any well-designed online course (scaffolding, retrieval practice, ease of navigation and so on), while explaining the importance of these features for supporting this particular kind of learner.

The qualitative analysis really drives home what a typical study environment is like for students with young children at home. If you did not already grasp the sheer level of patience needed to cope with this type of arrangement, you will after you read this article. It also offers tangible examples of the sky-high expectations that student mothers might hold themselves to, one in which they excel at every facet of their schoolwork while simultaneously being responsive, present parents at all times.

There’s also some good information on why these students are persisting through such massive challenges in order to make progress on their degrees. This is frankly uplifting to read. Their stories demonstrate the reasons why well-designed distance education is so important. Statistics and graphs are one way to make the point, but stories like the ones in this article land in a different way.

Most Relevant For:

Online program leaders and designers; DEIJ and gender equity advocates

Limitations, Caveats, and Nagging Questions:

Readers will want to keep in mind the advantages but also the limitations of case study and qualitative analysis. I’m not an expert in these methodologies myself, but the authors provide explanation and a deep discussion of limitations which I found helpful. The authors include a lot of fine-grained detail on each case (i.e., each individual student). This adds valuable depth but also a fair amount of length to the article.  

This study launched in the early phases of the pandemic, so this is a time of unique stressors. As the authors point out, balancing workload was a pre-existing and familiar challenge to these participants, but the “increased demand on their mental load from stress and forced isolation” was not.

If you liked this like this article, you might also appreciate:

Darby, & Lang, J. M. (2019). Small teaching online : Applying learning science in online classes. Jossey-Bass.

Glazier, R. A. (2016). Building Rapport to Improve Retention and Success in Online Classes. Journal of Political Science Education, 12(4), 437–456. https://doi.org/10.1080/15512169.2016.1155994

Miller, M.D. (2014).  Minds Online: Teaching Effectively with Technology. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

File under: 

Gender-related inequity; DEIJ; nontraditional students; distraction; online study practices; pandemic impacts